1、Chapter 10: Water: Process, Supply, & Use,Water cycle - fig p 304,water moves through the system ocean atmosphere precipitation land glaciers lakes streams distribution & residence time - table p 305,Surface Water,watershed - drainage basin supply factors geology basin shape, relief, slope, efficien
2、cy orientation to storms precipitation - type, intensity, duration, annual variation vegetation (trees, grass, crops, none) animals groundwater flow,Surface Water,Sediment yield geology topography climate vegetation land-use,Groundwater,What is the source of groundwater? recharge precipitation (ulti
3、mate source influent -losing stream,groundwater distribution,fig p 309 & 310 zone of aeration vadose/unsaturated zone capillary fringe water table zone of saturation,classification of units aquifer unconfined confined perched artesian aquitard/aquiclude,groundwater discharge,effluent/gaining stream
4、- base flow spring well,groundwater flow,Darcys law Q=KiA K = hydraulic conductivity - table p 312 permeability porosity i = hydraulic gradient = h/l h difference in water table elevation water flows from hi pressure to low pressure l = distance between wells A = x-sectional area rate of flow - cm/d
5、ay (at best residence time,wells,fig p 311 cone of depression artesian yield mining,groundwater-surface water interaction,gaining and losing streams - fig p 310, 315 springs karst sinkholes disappearing streams,Water supply,Water budget Input (rainrun on output runoff withdrawal subsurface flow evap
6、oration transpiration flood vs drought,in-stream use,surface water types - graph p 320 navigation power habitat recreation,off-stream,GW and surface consumptive and sewage types agricultural residential - (inc. drinking) industrial & commercial municipal out of basin,use trends - fig p 322,agricultu
7、re - #1 (decreasing) electric power generation - #2 (decreasing) residential (increasing) commercial & industrial (decreasing),water management,supply vs demand volume over time overdraft - fig p 313 develop supplies wells reservoirs aquaducts - fig p 320 reallocation of use conservation increase ef
8、ficiency of use recycling reuse of waste water,surface water rights,riparian adjacent landowner goes with property east of Miss prior appropriation volume per year separate from other property rights west of Miss,groundwater rights,absolute ownership (pump at will) reasonable use correlative rights
9、all owners = safe yield is divided prior appropriation,Chapter 11: Water Pollution,Water pollution,Degradation of water quality biological chemical physical,Pollutants,Biochemical oxygen demand mg/1 of O2 consumed over 5 days at 20degrees C agricultural runoff - nutrient sewage pathogenic organisms
10、human disease - cholera and typhoid Fecal coliform bacteria threshold 200 cells/100 ml water,Pollutants,nutrients phosphorous nitrogen (blue baby syndrome) oil toxic substances hazardous chemicals organics pesticides PCBs & dioxins heavy metals radioactive material sediment thermal,pollutant migrati
11、on,source route target,Surface water pollution,sources Point sources sewage industrial Non-point sources farms - nutrients & seds mines - acid & seds state Dissolved - short residence time Sediment borne - long residence time event - long term vs single event,Surface water pollution,migration routes
12、 direct washed in seepage from banks fate deposited diluted consumed evaporate,effected targets water supplies environmental treatment eliminate source excavate sediment treat water,Groundwater pollution - sources,table p 344 point sources LUST landfills septic systems feedlots and ag injection well
13、s non-point ag,groundwater pollution,Migration route down gradient down hill fate dissolves and disperses LNAPLS - floats DNAPLES - sinks vaporizes attaches to earth materials effected targets wells surface water,groundwater treatment,site characterization geology and hydrology contaminates targets
14、risk assessment isolation,corrective action remove source clean (impossible?)- table p 347 GW extraction - smearing wells/trenches vapor extraction sparging bioremediation treatment beds,Saltwater intrusion,fig p 347 near coast desalinization (expensive),water quality standards,fig p 348 set by gove
15、rnment science politics,Wastewater treatment,Septic tank sewage disposal Geologic factors type of soil composition, permeability depth to water table and seasonal variation depth to bed rock topography municipal - fig p 351 objectives convert organic matter to stable form reduce volume of sludge des
16、troy/control harmful bugs produce usable by-products alternatives wetland renovation - fig p 353,Chapter 12: Mineral Resources,Unique characteristics of mineral resources,non-renewable (on human scale produced by very slow processes easily depleted often occur in small localized bodies easy to find
17、and exploit hard to find and exploit Geographic location - not evenly distributed,Uses of mineral resources,table p 359 metal production - abundant and scarce building materials chemical industry agriculture necessary for life (ie. NaCl),Resources and reserves,fig p 361 potentially useful materials
18、identified useable legally retrievable economically viable decreasing supplies increased value improves economic viability,Consumption,fig p 362 rapid slower with conservation with recycling,Geology of Mineral Resources,ore - economically useful concentration of metallic minerals concentration facto
19、rs - table p 365 examples - table p 365,Igneous processes,kimberlite - fig p 366 layered intrusions pegmatites - late stage solutions hydrothermal - fig p 366 dissolves minerals & moves them to a new location veins cavity filling replacement,Metamorphism,contact - fig p 366 regional,effect of plate
20、tectonics,p 370-371,Sedimentary processes,sand and gravel deposits ore and mineral deposits placers - streams and beaches - fig p 368 evaporates - fig p 367 salt domes gypsum CaCO2 brines banded iron deposits,Biological processes,calcium shells phosphate bones guano,Weathering - fig p 369,residual m
21、inerals from rock body (ie bauxite residual ore deposit secondary enrichment of ore bodies,From Sea,Sea water salts magnesium Deep ocean floor ocean ridges black smokers sulfides manganese oxide nodules Mn 24%, Fe 14%, Cu 1%, Ni 1%, Co 25% mm to cm in diameter 1 to 5mm/million yrs,Environmental impa
22、ct,exploration - small development large mining effects refining slag - refining waste,mining effects,surface vs underground topographic changes aesthetic sediment groundwater and surface water pollution leachate & acid runoff air quality biological social impact rapid influx of workers demand on lo
23、cal resources closure,restoration & reclamation,env regulations biotechnology bioleaching water treatment - fig p 378 return site to near original state if possible high volume extraction - difficult to reclaim may send slag back to mine new use for site landfill recreation,Recycling,reuse of mined
24、materials extends life of resource,Chapter 13: Energy Resources,energy consumption,U.S. - fig p 385,Coal,coal forming process - fig p 387 organic material falls into low oxygen environment burial Classification - fig p 387 Lignite Subbituminous Bituminous Anthracite Sulfur content low 0-1% med 1-3%
25、high 3% Coal Deposits - fig p 389,Impact of coal mining,strip mining disturbs large areas reclamation underground subsidence fires future use (expand?,Oil and Gas,formation - fig p 393 natural gas (methane) biological decomposition of organic material in a no oxygen environment thermal decomposition
26、 of organic material in a no oxygen environment petroleum: thermal decomposition of organic material in a no oxygen environment (must be just right temp and pressure),characteristics of a petroleum or gas field,fig p 393, 394 source rock - organic-rich oceanic deposits shale limestone reservoir rock
27、 cap rock trap structure dome anticline fault unconformity,oil & pet. recovery,primary enhanced (secondary,oil & pet. distribution,fig p 395, 396 sed rx 500MY old largest fields - recent tectonic activity pressure and temp structure other resources methane hydrate Oil shale Tar sands,Impact of pet.
28、and gas exploration and development,roads drilling old - straight down, multiple sites new - multi directional, one site - fig p 399 wastewater transportation - spills refining,Acid rain,figs p 402, 403 source SOx NOx effect - damage vegetation water ecosystems human structures solutions buffer lake
29、s clean emissions clean fuel,Nuclear fission,resources U 238 (not fissionable, but converts to Plutonium 239 U 235 (fissionable Uranium ore U238 993% U235 07% (enriched to 3% process - split atomic nulcei burning reactor breeder reactor,fission: environmental effects,problems highly toxic (some diff
30、icult to contain (some long-lived (some bad publicity (bombs could be used by bad people reactors waste low-level trans-uranic: WIPP - fig p 415 high-level: Yucca Mtn - fig p 416,Fusion,4H 1He (sun hard to contain high energy low waste,Geothermal,geology high geothermal gradients - fig p 419 hot spr
31、ings and geysers hydrothermal convection systems vapor dominated - fig p 420 hot water dominated - fig p 420 environmental impact depletes system may be stinky & noisy future - good,Renewable energy sources,solar direct collectors - fig p 425 photovoltaic passive hydrogen fuel cell burns to produce
32、water must use energy to produce hydrogen,Renewable energy sources,water power types hydroelectric pump storage tidal run-of-river impact - dams large small,Renewable energy sources,wind power biomass trees - wood dung peat other plants,reduced energy use,conservation cogeneration - use of waste hea
33、t efficiency,energy policy,hard path vs soft path sustainablity,Chapter 14: Soils & Environment,soil composition,organics air water weathered earth materials (parent material),soil parent material,mechanical weathering smaller, rounder pieces (if moved) chemical weathering feldspars and water = clay
34、s calcite - dissolves organics - dissolve - acidify water quartz - usually left behind transported vs residual,soil formation,dominated by downward movement of water weathers parent material dissolves & moves substances downward,Soil profile - fig p 440,horizons O - organic humus little or no parent
35、 material A weathered parent material w/ organics zone of leaching E - few organics or iron B - zone of accumulation Bt - clay enriched Bk - calcium enriched - calcium coats K calcium dominated caliche - calcium layers C - partially altered parent material R - parent material,soil properties,color r
36、elated to composition organics - dark yellow iron - red or grey - dominates calcium - light or white describe wet - use charts texture grain size distribution (among fraction clay,Soil fertility,nutrients available for plants natural parent material - flood deposits, till, bedrock organics climate t
37、emp precipitationhumans alter vegetation add and remove nutrients single crops crop rotation erosion pesticides,Water in soil,saturated vs moist vs dry effect of soil moisture on soil cohesion sand (moist vs wet vs dry) clay (wet vs dry) flow saturated - hi pressure to lo pressure unsaturated - film
38、 of water attached to grains,Soil classification,taxonomy - based on physical and chemical props of soil morphology nutrients organics classification methods order, suborder, great group, subgroup, family, series focus on ag use universal soil classification focus on size and composition used by eng
39、ineers,engineering properties,How will soil affect building? based on particle size, compostion, water content behavior based on water content solid/plastic/liquid plastic limit, liquid limit - diff is plasticity index take soil, add water until ribbons form, flows wet weight - dry weight over dry w
40、eight,engineering properties,strength - how well does soil hold together and support cohesion of particles - esp for fine grain molecular and electrostatic forces moisture friction - density, size, and shape of particles - esp for coarse grain vegetation sensitivity change in strength as a result of
41、 disturbance coarse - low fine - high esp clay,engineering properties,compressibility coarse - low fine - high erodability susceptibility to wind and water erosion affected by particle size exposure water content cohesiveness cementation dead zone at surface,engineering properties,hydraulic conducti
42、vity coarse - high fine - low - clays less permeable, attract water corrosion potential - ion exchange with water of buried objects ie pipe & USTs affected by ability of soil to carry current water content resisitivitycathodic protection,engineering properties,ease of excavation common excavation ri
43、ppable excavation blasting or rock cutting - hard pan may be here,engineering properties,shrink - swell potential (expansive soils) increase and decrease in volume w/ water content usually absorbant clays montmorillonite can expand 15x 3% is bad most swell less than 25-50% response of soil is based
44、on soil type % of expansive clays moisture content climate wet & dry seasons vs steady veg - trees suck water topo - pounding water drainage - can keep soil dry,engineering properties,overall - clay soils low strength hi sensitivity high shrink - swell,soil erosion,natural process countered by soil
45、formation enhanced by landscape modification resulting in increased erosion, esp during modification urbanization timber harvests agriculture - tilling and grazing off-road vehicles,Sediment pollution,streams move sed increase sediment load aggradation full channel enhanced flooding decrease sedimen
46、t load degradation incision or bank erosion sediment deposited - flood plains, alluvial fans, lake bottoms, wetlands, deltas, local problem areas,Sediment pollution,components normal sediment load flood load disturbed sediments (farming, construction, logging, channelization wastes (municipal, indus
47、trial, mining solutions farm management sediment traps - fig p 452 clean water act re-vegetation,Soil pollution,addition of toxic or carcinogenic substances to soil factors mobility solubility attraction to clays decompostion presence of oxygen water microorganisms,desertification,conversion of prod
48、uctive land to desert factors deforestation soil erosion poor drainage of irrigated land overdraft of water accelerated by drought stress affects long term hydrologic cycle - climate,desertification,North American example water tables salinization of soil and near-surface soil water from irrigation
49、reduction of surface water in streams and lakes high rates of soil erosion loss of native vegetation interrelated factors - salinization - veg loss - erosion patchy occurrences,Soil surveys,soil maps soil cross-sections soil descriptions inc grain size distribution moisture content strength may rate soils agriculture, prime, important etc housing industry forestry hydric,Soil surveys and land use planning,derivitive maps based on specific characteristics building limits, slope, thickness, moisture content,
